That's MR. Kant to you!㰀⼀䘀伀一吀㸀㰀⼀吀䐀㸀㰀⼀吀刀㸀㰀⼀吀䄀䈀䰀䔀㸀
㰀昀漀渀琀 昀愀挀攀㴀∀嘀攀爀搀愀渀愀Ⰰ 䄀爀椀愀氀Ⰰ 吀愀栀漀洀愀∀ 挀漀氀漀爀㴀∀爀攀搀∀㸀
A little Kant, pour vous?
㰀氀椀㸀 㰀昀漀渀琀 挀漀氀漀爀㴀眀栀椀琀攀㸀㰀昀漀渀琀 猀椀稀攀㴀∀ⴀ㌀∀㸀 吀栀攀 䔀猀猀愀礀猀㰀⼀昀漀渀琀 猀椀稀攀㴀∀ⴀ㌀∀㸀㰀⼀昀漀渀琀 挀漀氀漀爀㴀眀栀椀琀攀㸀
㰀倀㸀㰀昀漀渀琀 猀椀稀攀㴀㸀
Here is an essay Written on Kant. The question is as follows: What is Kant doing when he derives three of the four formulations of the categorical imperative?
㰀倀㸀
㰀䰀䤀㸀㰀䤀㸀㰀䘀漀渀琀 挀漀氀漀爀㴀眀栀椀琀攀㸀一椀挀欀栀椀氀 匀椀渀最栀㰀倀㸀 ऀऀऀऀ
Title: The Reason to Reason䤀渀 琀栀攀 䘀漀甀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䴀攀琀愀瀀栀礀猀椀挀猀 漀昀 䴀漀爀愀氀猀Ⰰ 䤀洀洀愀渀甀攀氀 䬀愀渀琀 琀爀椀攀猀 琀漀 攀砀瀀氀愀椀渀 眀栀礀 洀愀渀 洀甀猀琀 愀挀琀 洀漀爀愀氀氀礀 椀渀 漀爀搀攀爀 琀漀 愀挀栀椀攀瘀攀 栀椀猀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀琀攀 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀 愀猀 愀 栀甀洀愀渀 戀攀椀渀最⸀ 䤀渀 匀攀挀琀椀漀渀 ㈀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 猀栀漀眀猀 眀栀礀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最猀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 愀氀眀愀礀猀 樀甀搀最攀 琀栀攀椀爀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 戀礀 洀愀砀椀洀猀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 挀漀甀氀搀 猀攀爀瘀攀 愀猀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀猀⸀ 匀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 昀爀漀洀 瀀愀最攀猀 㐀㈀㜀ⴀ㐀㌀㈀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 搀攀爀椀瘀攀猀 琀栀爀攀攀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀⸀ 吀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 猀愀礀猀Ⰰ ᰀ愠挀琀 漀渀氀礀 椀渀 愀挀挀漀爀搀愀渀挀攀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀愀琀 洀愀砀椀洀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 眀栀椀挀栀 礀漀甀 挀愀渀 愀琀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 琀椀洀攀 眀椀氀氀 琀栀愀琀 椀琀 戀攀挀漀洀攀 愀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀ᴀ†⠀㐀㈀㜀⤀⸀ 吀栀攀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀 猀愀礀猀 ᰀ䄠挀琀 猀漀 琀栀愀琀 礀漀甀 琀爀攀愀琀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀 眀栀攀琀栀攀爀 椀渀 礀漀甀爀 漀眀渀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 漀爀 椀渀 琀栀愀琀 漀昀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀Ⰰ 愀氀眀愀礀猀 愀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 愀渀搀 渀攀瘀攀爀 愀猀 愀 洀攀愀渀猀 漀渀氀礀ᴀ†⠀㐀㈀㤀⤀⸀ 䘀椀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 琀栀椀爀搀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 猀琀愀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 眀攀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 愀挀琀 愀猀 椀昀 眀攀 愀爀攀 氀攀最椀猀氀愀琀椀渀最 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀猀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 漀甀爀 洀愀砀椀洀猀 ⠀㐀㌀⤀⸀ 夀攀琀Ⰰ 洀漀爀攀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀 琀栀愀渀 琀栀攀猀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀猀 椀猀 琀栀攀 眀愀礀 䬀愀渀琀 愀爀爀椀瘀攀猀 愀琀 栀椀猀 挀漀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 栀攀 洀愀欀攀猀 琀栀攀猀攀 挀漀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀猀 戀礀 栀椀最栀氀椀最栀琀椀渀最 洀愀渀ᤀ猠 甀渀椀焀甀攀 愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 琀漀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 䄀挀挀漀爀搀椀渀最 琀漀 䬀愀渀琀Ⰰ 漀渀氀礀 愀渀 愀挀琀 洀愀搀攀 昀爀漀洀 愀 最漀漀搀 眀椀氀氀 爀攀猀甀氀琀猀 椀渀 洀漀爀愀氀 眀漀爀琀栀 愀渀搀 眀椀琀栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 洀愀渀 挀愀渀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀 栀漀眀 琀漀 愀挀琀 昀爀漀洀 愀 最漀漀搀 眀椀氀氀⸀ 圀栀攀渀 搀攀爀椀瘀椀渀最 琀栀攀猀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀猀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 攀砀瀀氀愀椀渀猀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀渀攀挀琀椀漀渀 戀攀琀眀攀攀渀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 最漀漀搀 眀椀氀氀 愀渀搀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀Ⰰ 最椀瘀椀渀最 洀漀爀攀 椀渀猀椀最栀琀 椀渀琀漀 琀栀攀 最爀漀甀渀搀 漀昀 洀漀爀愀氀猀Ⰰ 眀栀礀 眀攀 漀戀攀礀 琀栀攀洀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀挀攀 椀渀 漀甀爀 氀椀瘀攀猀⸀㰀倀㸀
In this essay, I will examine how Kant derives three of the four principles of the categorical imperative. Accordingly, I will divide this essay into three sections. In the first section of the essay, I will clarify how Kant thinks it is even possible to objectively conceive of a maxim, which at the same time can become a universal law. In the second section of the essay, I will explain how Kant’s second formulation of the categorical imperative serves as the basis for treating others with respect in the categorical imperative. In the final section of the essay, I will show how Kant thinks that the first two formulations of the categorical imperative can be practically applied, and thus how the third formulation of the categorical imperative, how everyone can turn maxims into universal laws, comes to fruition.
吀漀 昀椀爀猀琀 愀搀搀爀攀猀猀 琀栀攀 焀甀攀猀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 眀栀椀挀栀 洀愀砀椀洀猀 挀漀甀氀搀 昀漀爀洀 琀栀攀 戀愀猀椀猀 漀昀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀猀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 洀愀欀攀猀 琀栀攀 愀猀猀甀洀瀀琀椀漀渀 琀栀愀琀 椀昀 猀甀挀栀 愀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀 攀砀椀猀琀猀 椀琀 洀甀猀琀 戀攀 欀渀漀眀渀 愀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀 愀渀搀 椀搀攀渀琀椀昀椀攀搀 戀礀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 ⠀㐀㈀㌀⤀⸀ 䬀愀渀琀 昀甀爀琀栀攀爀猀 攀砀瀀氀愀椀渀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀椀猀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀 洀愀琀琀攀爀 昀愀氀氀猀 椀渀琀漀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀氀洀 漀昀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀 瀀栀椀氀漀猀漀瀀栀礀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 愀猀猀甀洀攀猀 眀栀愀琀 漀甀最栀琀 琀漀 栀愀瀀瀀攀渀 愀渀搀 渀漀琀 眀栀愀琀 愀挀琀甀愀氀氀礀 眀椀氀氀 栀愀瀀瀀攀渀⸀ 䠀攀 搀攀昀攀渀搀猀 琀栀椀猀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 戀礀 猀愀礀椀渀最Ⰰ 㰀倀㸀䈀甀琀 栀攀爀攀 椀琀 椀猀 愀 焀甀攀猀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀 氀愀眀猀 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 爀攀氀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 愀 眀椀氀氀 琀漀 椀琀猀攀氀昀 猀漀 昀愀爀 愀猀 椀琀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀猀 椀琀猀攀氀昀 漀渀氀礀 戀礀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 攀瘀攀爀礀琀栀椀渀最 眀栀椀挀栀 栀愀猀 愀 爀攀氀愀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 琀栀攀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 愀甀琀漀洀愀琀椀挀愀氀氀礀 昀愀氀氀猀 愀眀愀礀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 椀昀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 漀昀 椀琀猀攀氀昀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀猀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀Ⰰ 椀琀 洀甀猀琀 愀氀猀漀 渀攀挀攀猀猀愀爀椀氀礀 搀漀 猀漀 愀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀 ⠀㐀㈀㌀⤀⸀㰀倀㸀
䬀愀渀琀 愀爀最甀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 挀漀爀渀攀爀猀琀漀渀攀 漀昀 氀愀眀 椀猀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 渀漀琀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 琀栀愀琀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 漀甀最栀琀 琀漀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀⸀ 刀攀洀攀洀戀攀爀Ⰰ 椀渀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀攀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䜀爀漀甀渀搀眀漀爀欀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 搀椀瘀椀搀攀搀 琀栀攀 猀琀甀搀礀 漀昀 瀀栀椀氀漀猀漀瀀栀礀 椀渀琀漀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 戀爀愀渀挀栀攀猀 愀渀搀 搀攀洀漀渀猀琀爀愀琀攀搀 琀栀愀琀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀 昀愀氀氀猀 甀渀搀攀爀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀礀 漀昀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀猀Ⰰ 猀攀瀀愀爀愀琀攀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀愀琀 漀昀 洀漀爀愀氀猀⸀ 䄀琀 琀栀椀猀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀 瀀漀椀渀琀 漀昀 栀椀猀 搀椀猀挀漀甀爀猀攀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 欀渀漀眀猀 琀栀愀琀 椀渀 漀爀搀攀爀 昀漀爀 甀猀 琀漀 甀渀搀攀爀猀琀愀渀搀 栀椀猀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 漀渀 洀愀砀椀洀猀 愀猀 琀栀攀 戀愀猀椀猀 昀漀爀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀猀Ⰰ 眀攀 洀甀猀琀 愀猀猀甀洀攀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀 栀攀 愀猀猀甀洀攀搀 琀栀攀爀攀 愀戀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 渀愀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 洀愀渀Ⰰ 渀愀洀攀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀愀琀 栀攀 栀愀猀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀渀搀 琀栀愀琀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 椀猀 琀栀攀 昀漀甀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀 昀漀爀 甀渀搀攀爀猀琀愀渀搀椀渀最 洀漀爀愀氀猀⸀ 圀椀琀栀漀甀琀 琀栀椀猀 瀀漀椀渀琀 漀昀 瘀椀攀眀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 眀椀氀氀 挀攀愀猀攀 琀漀 洀愀欀攀 猀攀渀猀攀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 漀渀攀 眀椀氀氀 爀攀氀礀 漀渀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀 琀漀 挀爀攀愀琀攀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀猀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 眀椀氀氀 挀攀愀猀攀 琀漀 洀愀欀攀 琀栀攀洀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 琀爀愀渀猀挀攀渀搀攀渀琀 漀爀 戀椀渀搀椀渀最 琀漀 琀栀攀 栀甀洀愀渀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀椀猀洀 椀猀 渀漀琀 愀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀⸀ 䄀猀 愀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀Ⰰ 漀渀氀礀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 挀愀渀 栀攀氀瀀 琀漀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀 愀 氀愀眀 琀栀愀琀 椀猀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀氀礀 愀瀀瀀氀椀挀愀戀氀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 渀漀琀 樀甀猀琀 愀瀀瀀氀椀挀愀戀氀攀 琀漀 漀渀攀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀Ⰰ 氀椀欀攀 愀渀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀 挀愀渀 戀攀⸀㰀倀㸀
Additionally, when Kant clarifies how reason can determine conduct, we learn why all empirical things cannot be associated with Kant’s system because empiricism relies on mixed, transient incentives as opposed to the pure, objective strength of reason (427). Kant explains that only a rational being possesses a will that acts of its own objective volition (427). Moreover, he clarifies what this entails when he writes,
吀栀攀 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 栀漀氀搀猀 戀攀昀漀爀攀 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀 戀礀 挀栀漀椀挀攀 愀猀 挀漀渀猀攀焀甀攀渀挀攀猀 漀昀 栀椀猀 愀挀琀椀漀渀 愀爀攀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀猀 愀渀搀 愀爀攀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 攀砀挀攀瀀琀椀漀渀 漀渀氀礀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 漀渀氀礀 琀栀攀椀爀 爀攀氀愀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 愀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀氀礀 挀漀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀搀 昀愀挀甀氀琀礀 漀昀 搀攀猀椀爀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀 最椀瘀攀猀 琀栀攀洀 琀栀攀椀爀 眀漀爀琀栀☀†䄀氀氀 琀栀攀猀攀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀Ⰰ 愀爀攀 最爀漀甀渀搀猀 昀漀爀 栀礀瀀漀琀栀攀琀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀猀 漀渀氀礀 ⠀㐀㈀㠀⤀⸀㰀倀㸀
匀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 眀栀攀渀 眀攀 氀漀漀欀 愀琀 愀渀 愀挀琀椀漀渀 戀礀 挀漀渀猀椀搀攀爀椀渀最 椀琀猀 椀渀挀攀渀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 椀⸀攀⸀ 琀栀攀 搀攀猀椀爀攀 琀漀 最愀椀渀 猀漀洀攀 愀搀瘀愀渀琀愀最攀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀㬀 眀攀 渀漀琀椀挀攀 愀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 搀攀猀椀爀攀 昀漀爀 攀愀挀栀 愀挀琀椀漀渀⸀ 䈀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀 搀攀猀椀爀攀 昀漀爀 愀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀 愀挀琀椀漀渀 椀猀 瘀愀爀椀愀戀氀攀Ⰰ 椀琀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 愀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 愀 氀愀眀 椀猀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 琀栀愀琀 洀甀猀琀 愀瀀瀀氀礀 琀漀 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀 椀渀 愀氀氀 猀椀琀甀愀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀猀 眀栀礀 眀攀 猀愀礀 愀 洀愀砀椀洀 昀漀爀洀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 愀渀 愀挀琀椀漀渀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 椀渀挀攀渀琀椀瘀攀 椀猀 愀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 氀愀眀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀 氀愀眀 椀猀 昀漀甀渀搀攀搀 甀瀀漀渀 琀栀攀 琀爀愀渀猀椀攀渀琀 搀攀猀椀爀攀猀 漀昀 愀 栀甀洀愀渀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀猀 渀漀琀 琀漀 猀愀礀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 氀愀眀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 戀爀漀欀攀渀⸀ 䌀氀攀愀爀氀礀Ⰰ 洀漀爀愀氀 氀愀眀猀 愀爀攀 戀爀漀欀攀渀 愀氀氀 琀栀攀 琀椀洀攀 戀礀 瀀攀漀瀀氀攀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 眀愀渀琀猀 琀栀攀 昀漀甀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 栀椀猀 氀愀眀猀 琀漀 戀攀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 瀀攀爀洀愀渀攀渀琀Ⰰ 愀氀洀漀猀琀 䜀漀搀ⴀ氀椀欀攀 ⸀ 䠀攀 愀爀最甀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 氀愀眀猀 挀愀渀 漀渀氀礀 戀攀 昀漀甀渀搀攀搀 漀渀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 椀猀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀琀椀渀挀琀椀瘀攀 洀愀爀欀 漀昀 愀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 愀 眀椀氀氀 愀渀搀 愀猀 眀攀 猀琀愀琀攀搀 攀愀爀氀椀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 眀椀氀氀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀猀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 椀渀 愀挀挀漀爀搀愀渀挀攀 眀椀琀栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 䘀漀爀 氀愀眀猀 琀漀 戀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 渀愀洀攀氀礀 渀漀琀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀 戀甀琀 瀀攀爀洀愀渀攀渀琀 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 攀渀昀漀爀挀攀愀戀氀攀Ⰰ 琀栀攀礀 洀甀猀琀 挀漀洀攀 昀爀漀洀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀氀漀渀攀Ⰰ 瀀愀礀椀渀最 渀漀 愀琀琀攀渀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 䔀瘀攀爀礀 洀愀渀 栀愀猀 琀栀攀 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀 琀漀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 猀漀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 愀猀 愀渀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 猀漀甀爀挀攀 昀漀爀 洀愀欀椀渀最 氀愀眀猀Ⰰ 挀愀渀 栀攀氀瀀 琀漀 挀爀攀愀琀攀 氀愀眀猀 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀 挀愀渀 昀漀氀氀漀眀 ⸀㰀倀㸀
What seems troubling with Kant’s approach is his disinterest in the pleasurable aspect of laws and how these laws could make a person happy. He wants to prove that it is indeed necessary law for all rational beings to follow universal laws and it at first seems that he neglects what could be a cogent aspect of his argument by failing to show that the use of reason is somehow pleasurable. He says of pleasure, “Hence, in practical philosophy we need not inquire… whether this is distinct from a general satisfaction of reason” (427). As the quote suggests, the readers of Kant’s discourse are mere spectators who can observe his investigation. In this book, the question of moral obligation is of utmost importance to Kant first and foremost. We know this because earlier in this discourse, Kant states that morality and happiness do not coincide in many circumstances (418). Perhaps Kant’s own answer to this question is of utmost importance to him and his ability to exist on earth.
䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 戀礀 愀渀愀氀礀稀椀渀最 琀栀椀猀 瀀漀爀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 琀攀砀琀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 戀漀漀欀 愀猀 愀 眀栀漀氀攀Ⰰ 眀攀 挀愀渀 瀀漀猀琀甀氀愀琀攀 眀栀礀 䬀愀渀琀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 挀愀爀攀 愀戀漀甀琀 瀀氀攀愀猀甀爀攀⸀ 䈀礀 氀漀漀欀椀渀最 愀琀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 猀琀礀氀攀 漀昀 眀爀椀琀椀渀最Ⰰ 眀攀 爀攀愀氀椀稀攀 琀栀愀琀 䬀愀渀琀 漀渀氀礀 挀愀爀攀猀 愀戀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 瀀攀爀洀愀渀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 栀椀猀 氀愀眀猀 愀渀搀 渀漀琀 洀愀欀椀渀最 琀栀攀猀攀 氀愀眀猀 愀瀀瀀攀愀氀椀渀最 琀漀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀搀攀爀⸀ 䬀愀渀琀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 琀爀礀 琀漀 甀猀攀 攀琀栀漀猀 漀爀 瀀愀琀栀漀猀 琀漀 挀漀渀瘀椀渀挀攀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀搀攀爀 琀栀愀琀 栀椀猀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 椀猀 瘀愀氀椀搀⸀ 䤀渀猀琀攀愀搀Ⰰ 栀攀 甀猀攀猀 氀漀最漀猀 愀渀搀 最甀椀搀攀猀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀搀攀爀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 栀椀猀 焀甀攀猀琀椀漀渀椀渀最 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 眀愀礀 愀 洀愀琀栀攀洀愀琀椀挀椀愀渀 氀攀愀搀猀 愀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 愀 洀愀琀栀攀洀愀琀椀挀愀氀 瀀爀漀漀昀⸀ 匀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 栀攀 爀攀氀椀攀猀 漀渀 洀愀欀椀渀最 猀礀氀氀漀最椀猀洀猀 愀渀搀 戀甀椀氀搀椀渀最 甀瀀漀渀 攀愀挀栀 瀀爀攀挀攀搀椀渀最 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 ⸀ 一漀眀 䬀愀渀琀 搀椀猀琀椀渀最甀椀猀栀攀搀 琀栀椀猀 猀礀猀琀攀洀 漀昀 瀀栀椀氀漀猀漀瀀栀礀 攀愀爀氀椀攀爀 椀渀 琀栀攀 戀漀漀欀 琀漀 洀愀欀攀 琀栀椀猀 氀漀最椀挀愀氀 椀渀瘀攀猀琀椀最愀琀椀漀渀 瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 栀攀 栀漀瀀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀椀琀礀 漀昀 栀椀猀 搀攀昀椀渀椀琀椀漀渀猀 洀愀欀攀 栀椀猀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 挀漀最攀渀琀 攀渀漀甀最栀⸀ 䴀漀猀琀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 焀甀漀琀攀 猀甀最最攀猀琀猀 琀栀愀琀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀 栀愀猀 愀 瘀愀氀甀攀 甀渀爀攀氀愀琀攀搀 琀漀 栀愀瀀瀀椀渀攀猀猀 愀渀搀 漀渀氀礀 戀礀 瀀爀漀挀攀攀搀椀渀最 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 眀椀氀氀 眀攀 昀椀渀搀 愀 戀攀琀琀攀爀 甀渀搀攀爀猀琀愀渀搀椀渀最 漀昀 琀栀椀猀 瘀愀氀甀攀⸀㰀倀㸀
Having made this distinction between empirical and rational knowledge, and after discussing how this distinction applies to universal laws, Kant shifts the focus of his essay to finding what can be the basis of a law. To answer this question, he says, “But suppose that there were something the existence of which in itself had absolute worth, something which, as an end in itself, could be a ground of definite laws. In it and only in it could lie the ground of a possible categorical imperative” (428). In particular, Kant makes two assumptions in order to proceed with his argument. First, Kant makes the assumption that finding something with absolute worth, something an end in itself and followed for this reason, is possible. Now, following Kant’s logical method of investigation, this seems like a rational move to make. In any mathematical proof or logical argument, we always need to have some assumptions or postulates to prove any theory is correct. So, Kant does not cheat his reader in taking this step, but continues his logical approach in dealing with subject. 匀攀挀漀渀搀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 愀猀猀甀洀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 攀渀搀 漀昀 椀琀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 愀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀 挀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 昀漀甀渀搀Ⰰ 琀栀愀琀 椀猀 琀漀 猀愀礀Ⰰ 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 戀漀甀渀搀 琀漀 猀琀爀椀瘀攀 昀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 攀渀搀⸀ 一漀眀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 椀猀 渀漀琀 愀猀 氀漀最椀挀愀氀 愀渀 愀猀猀甀洀瀀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 洀愀欀攀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀漀甀最栀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀渀 椀琀猀攀氀昀 洀愀礀 攀砀椀猀琀Ⰰ 椀琀 猀攀攀洀猀 栀愀爀搀 琀漀 昀椀渀搀 愀 瀀爀椀漀爀椀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 椀琀 漀爀 琀漀 攀瘀攀渀 欀渀漀眀 眀栀愀琀 椀琀 椀猀⸀ 圀攀 洀甀猀琀 爀攀挀愀氀氀 琀栀愀琀 䬀愀渀琀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 甀猀攀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀 琀漀 猀甀瀀瀀漀爀琀 栀椀猀 挀氀愀椀洀㬀 栀椀猀 眀栀漀氀攀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 漀渀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀 爀攀氀椀攀猀 漀渀 琀栀攀 渀漀琀椀漀渀 琀栀愀琀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀 挀漀洀攀猀 昀爀漀洀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 吀栀甀猀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 洀甀猀琀 猀栀漀眀 椀渀 栀椀猀 昀漀氀氀漀眀椀渀最 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 眀栀愀琀 椀渀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀 瀀爀漀洀瀀琀猀 甀猀 琀漀 愀挀琀 椀渀 愀 挀攀爀琀愀椀渀 眀愀礀 琀漀眀愀爀搀猀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀 愀渀搀 搀漀 猀漀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 甀猀椀渀最 愀渀礀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀 愀猀 樀甀猀琀椀昀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀⸀㰀倀㸀
Without hesitating, Kant argues that every rational being exists as an end in himself, and that this is the absolute value he seeks. Kant defends this argument and makes a clear distinction between those who have reason and those who do not, when he says,
䈀攀椀渀最猀 眀栀漀猀攀 攀砀椀猀琀攀渀挀攀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀 漀渀 漀甀爀 眀椀氀氀 戀甀琀 漀渀 渀愀琀甀爀攀Ⰰ 椀昀 琀栀攀礀 愀爀攀 渀漀琀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最猀Ⰰ 栀愀瘀攀 漀渀氀礀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀 眀漀爀琀栀 愀猀 洀攀愀渀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀爀攀 琀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀 挀愀氀氀攀搀 ᰀ琠栀椀渀最猀ᴀ㬠 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最猀Ⰰ 漀渀 琀栀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 愀爀攀 搀攀猀椀最渀愀琀攀搀 ᰀ瀠攀爀猀漀渀猀ᴀ†戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀椀爀 渀愀琀甀爀攀 椀渀搀椀挀愀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀礀 愀爀攀 攀渀搀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀洀猀攀氀瘀攀猀 ⠀㐀㈀㠀⤀⸀㰀倀㸀
䄀氀琀栀漀甀最栀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 愀戀漀甀琀 ᰀ瀠攀爀猀漀渀猀ᴀ†愀渀搀 ᰀ琠栀椀渀最猀ᴀ†猀攀攀洀猀 愀 戀椀琀 猀椀氀氀礀 愀琀 昀椀爀猀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 瀀漀椀渀琀 栀攀 洀愀欀攀猀 椀猀 瘀愀氀椀搀⸀ 吀栀攀 洀攀爀攀 昀愀挀琀 琀栀愀琀 眀攀 挀氀愀猀猀椀昀礀 栀甀洀愀渀猀 眀椀琀栀 搀椀最渀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 漀琀栀攀爀 漀戀樀攀挀琀猀 漀爀 漀爀最愀渀椀猀洀猀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀氀礀 瀀爀攀猀甀瀀瀀漀猀攀猀 猀甀瀀攀爀椀漀爀椀琀礀 椀渀 栀甀洀愀渀猀⸀ 䤀渀 昀愀挀琀Ⰰ 栀甀洀愀渀猀 愀爀攀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 昀爀漀洀 漀琀栀攀爀 猀瀀攀挀椀攀猀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀礀 瀀漀猀猀攀猀猀 爀攀愀猀漀渀㬀 琀栀椀猀 椀猀 眀栀愀琀 洀愀欀攀猀 琀栀攀洀 攀渀搀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀洀猀攀氀瘀攀猀⸀ 䴀漀爀攀 猀愀氀椀攀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 椀渀 栀甀洀愀渀猀 愀氀氀漀眀猀 琀栀攀洀 琀漀 愀琀琀愀椀渀 愀 猀琀愀琀攀 最爀攀愀琀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 愀 洀攀爀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 琀栀攀椀爀 眀漀爀琀栀 愀琀 愀渀礀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀 琀椀洀攀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀㬀 椀渀猀琀攀愀搀Ⰰ 栀甀洀愀渀猀 愀爀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀猀 漀昀 爀攀猀瀀攀挀琀 愀渀搀 挀愀爀攀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀椀爀 ᰀ渠愀琀甀爀攀Ⰰᴀ†琀栀愀琀 椀猀 琀漀 猀愀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀椀爀 愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 琀漀 甀渀搀攀爀猀琀愀渀搀 琀栀椀渀最猀 愀渀搀 最爀漀眀 椀渀琀漀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 最爀攀愀琀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 樀甀猀琀 愀 甀猀攀愀戀氀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀 愀氀氀漀眀猀 琀栀攀洀 琀漀 栀愀瘀攀 瀀攀爀洀愀渀攀渀琀 眀漀爀琀栀⸀ 圀椀琀栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 洀愀渀 挀愀渀 愀挀琀甀愀氀氀礀 琀栀椀渀欀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 栀椀猀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 愀渀搀 渀漀琀 挀漀洀洀椀琀 愀渀 愀挀琀 漀甀琀 漀昀 洀攀爀攀 椀渀挀氀椀渀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 猀漀 眀攀 栀愀瘀攀 猀漀洀攀 猀攀氀昀ⴀ眀漀爀琀栀 椀渀 漀甀爀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 䴀漀爀攀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 洀愀礀戀攀 渀漀琀 愀猀 猀甀戀琀氀攀Ⰰ 椀猀 琀栀攀 瀀漀椀渀琀 琀栀愀琀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀 挀愀渀 漀渀氀礀 攀砀椀猀琀 眀椀琀栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 䤀爀爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最猀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 攀琀栀椀挀愀氀Ⰰ 渀漀爀 挀愀渀 琀栀攀礀 戀攀 洀漀爀愀氀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 椀猀 渀漀琀 琀栀攀爀攀 琀漀 挀漀渀琀攀洀瀀氀愀琀攀 愀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀⸀ 䴀漀爀攀漀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀 琀漀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 椀猀 昀漀甀渀搀 攀瘀攀爀礀 洀愀渀Ⰰ 洀愀渀 挀愀渀 戀攀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀渀 椀琀猀攀氀昀⸀㰀倀㸀
In addition, by writing that “human existence depends on our will, ” Kant makes a huge distinction between a rational being with an ability to will and an irrational being’s inability to do so. In the first place, a rational being has the opportunity to be moral, which an irrational being cannot do. This means that a rational being already has a greater value than an irrational being because a rational being can make a choice in their action. Now, this ability to have a good will comes from using our reason. The mere idea of contemplation assumes a thought process distinctive in human beings and not in animals or other organisms, so we exercise reason by the mere use of our mental faculties. Our ability to question our actions and beliefs, to decide on one thing over another, allows us to know what is even “good” for a good will. The good will discerned through reason makes us unique and allows us to gain moral worth in our actions.
䴀漀爀攀漀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最ᤀ猠 氀椀瘀攀氀椀栀漀漀搀 椀猀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀攀渀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 瀀甀爀椀琀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀椀爀 洀漀琀椀瘀攀猀⸀ 吀栀甀猀Ⰰ 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 栀愀猀 琀栀攀 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀 琀漀 愀挀琀 漀甀琀 漀昀 愀 最漀漀搀 漀爀 戀愀搀 眀椀氀氀⸀ 䤀渀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 戀攀氀椀攀瘀攀猀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 戀漀爀渀攀 漀甀琀 漀昀 愀 最漀漀搀 眀椀氀氀 椀渀 愀挀挀漀爀搀愀渀挀攀 眀椀琀栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀爀攀 琀栀攀 漀渀氀礀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 琀栀愀琀 挀愀渀 栀愀瘀攀 洀漀爀愀氀 眀漀爀琀栀 ⠀㌀㤀㘀⤀⸀ 刀攀洀攀洀戀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 眀栀漀氀攀 椀搀攀愀 漀昀 愀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀 挀漀洀攀猀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 椀搀攀愀 漀昀 愀挀琀椀渀最 漀甀琀 漀昀 搀甀琀礀 戀愀猀攀搀 漀渀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 伀渀氀礀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 甀猀椀渀最 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀渀搀 愀 最漀漀搀 眀椀氀氀 挀愀渀 眀攀 栀愀瘀攀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 愀渀礀 猀攀氀昀 眀漀爀琀栀
While we could not object with Kant’s establishment of rational humans as ends in themselves, we may take issue with how he comes to the conclusion that “Such a being is thus an object of respect, and as such restricts all [arbitrary] choice,” for though humans may be ends in themselves this does not mean they have to be respected (428). However, Kant does clarify how man as an end in itself must be respected, and thus bound by a categorical imperative when he says of humans, objective ends, “Such an end is one in the place of which no other end, to which these beings should serve merely as means, can be put” (428). Specifically, Kant argues that the life of one human cannot be replaced by the life of another because reason distinctively makes each person unique. As we just stated, each person can cultivate their reason; that is to say, each human can actually think about their actions and derive intrinsic value from choosing one act over another. So, humans are not subjective ends with a value that changes in each particular scenario. Instead, humans are ends in themselves that cannot change, so they, like all objective ends, command respect. In fact, because human life has absolute worth, no other end can trump it, and automatically humans become something greater than anything else.
ऀ䄀氀猀漀Ⰰ 椀琀 洀愀礀 戀攀 攀愀猀椀攀爀 琀漀 琀栀椀渀欀 漀昀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 猀琀愀渀搀瀀漀椀渀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 愀昀漀爀攀洀攀渀琀椀漀渀攀搀 洀愀琀栀攀洀愀琀椀挀愀氀 瀀爀漀漀昀 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 瀀爀漀瘀攀 琀栀愀琀 琀漀 琀爀攀愀琀 洀愀渀 愀猀 愀渀礀琀栀椀渀最 漀琀栀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 愀渀 攀渀搀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 愀 挀漀渀琀爀愀搀椀挀琀椀漀渀⸀ 匀椀洀瀀氀礀 瀀甀琀Ⰰ 椀昀 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 栀甀洀愀渀 椀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀Ⰰ 琀栀攀渀 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 栀甀洀愀渀 椀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 愀渀搀 渀漀琀栀椀渀最 攀氀猀攀⸀ ⠀䰀椀欀攀 眀攀 猀愀礀 䄀㴀䄀 椀渀 洀愀琀栀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 䄀怀䈢⤀⸀ 吀漀 琀爀攀愀琀 洀愀渀 愀猀 愀 洀攀愀渀猀 愀渀搀 渀漀琀 愀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀Ⰰ 椀猀 椀氀氀漀最椀挀愀氀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀Ⰰ 愀 挀漀渀琀爀愀搀椀挀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 琀攀爀洀猀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀猀 琀漀 猀愀礀Ⰰ 椀昀 眀攀 搀攀昀椀渀攀 猀漀洀攀 琀攀爀洀 愀 瘀愀氀甀攀 愀渀搀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀 琀攀爀洀 愀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 瘀愀氀甀攀Ⰰ 琀栀攀礀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 瘀愀氀甀攀 渀漀 洀愀琀琀攀爀 眀栀愀琀 漀渀攀 搀漀攀猀⸀㰀倀㸀
From his conclusion that each man must respect each other as a rational being with a proper end, Kant makes his first universal law that “rational nature exists as an end in itself” (429). From this universal law, Kant also derives his practical imperative , which states, “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only” (429). However, Kant uses a questionable technique to make this connection. As he says (429), 䴀愀渀 渀攀挀攀猀猀愀爀椀氀礀 琀栀椀渀欀猀 漀昀 栀椀猀 漀眀渀 攀砀椀猀琀攀渀挀攀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 眀愀礀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 昀愀爀 椀琀 椀猀 愀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 漀昀 栀甀洀愀渀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 䄀氀猀漀 攀瘀攀爀礀 漀琀栀攀爀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 琀栀椀渀欀猀 漀昀 栀椀猀 攀砀椀猀琀攀渀挀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 最爀漀甀渀搀 眀栀椀挀栀 愀氀猀漀 栀漀氀搀猀 昀漀爀 洀礀猀攀氀昀㬀 琀栀甀猀 椀琀 椀猀 愀琀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 琀椀洀攀 愀渀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 昀爀漀洀 眀栀椀挀栀Ⰰ 愀猀 愀 猀甀瀀爀攀洀攀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀 最爀漀甀渀搀Ⰰ 椀琀 洀甀猀琀 戀攀 瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀攀 琀漀 搀攀爀椀瘀攀 愀氀氀 氀愀眀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 眀椀氀氀 㰀倀㸀
䄀琀 昀椀爀猀琀Ⰰ 椀琀 猀攀攀洀猀 氀椀欀攀 䬀愀渀琀 甀猀攀猀 愀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 琀漀 搀攀爀椀瘀攀 栀椀猀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀 漀渀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 挀氀漀猀攀爀 椀渀瘀攀猀琀椀最愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 眀漀爀搀猀 爀攀瘀攀愀氀猀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀⸀ 䬀愀渀琀 愀爀最甀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 攀愀挀栀 洀愀渀 琀栀椀渀欀猀 漀昀 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀 愀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 搀甀攀 琀漀 栀椀猀 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀 琀漀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 眀攀 愀氀氀 愀挀琀 椀渀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 眀愀礀猀 琀漀 攀砀瀀爀攀猀猀 琀栀椀猀 椀搀攀愀 漀昀 猀攀氀昀ⴀ瀀爀攀猀攀爀瘀愀琀椀漀渀⸀ 吀栀爀漀甀最栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 䤀 挀愀渀 搀椀猀挀攀爀渀 琀栀愀琀 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀 琀栀椀渀欀猀 琀栀椀猀 眀愀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀愀琀 䤀 洀礀猀攀氀昀 琀栀椀渀欀 琀栀椀猀 眀愀礀Ⰰ 猀漀 琀栀椀猀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 挀攀愀猀攀猀 琀漀 戀攀 愀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 戀甀琀 愀渀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 愀戀漀甀琀 愀氀氀 洀攀渀⸀ ⠀䤀琀 椀猀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 琀栀愀琀 眀攀 挀愀渀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀戀漀甀琀 洀攀渀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 栀愀瘀椀渀最 琀漀 愀猀欀 栀椀洀⤀⸀ 䘀爀漀洀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 琀攀挀栀渀椀焀甀攀Ⰰ 眀攀 愀最愀椀渀 猀攀攀 栀漀眀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 挀愀渀 戀攀 琀栀攀 漀渀氀礀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 猀漀甀爀挀攀 昀漀爀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀椀渀最 愀 氀愀眀⸀ 䴀漀爀攀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 眀栀攀渀 猀琀愀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 琀栀愀琀 甀渀搀攀爀氀椀渀攀猀 猀漀 洀愀渀礀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀 瀀漀椀渀琀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 挀栀攀愀琀 栀椀猀 爀攀愀搀攀爀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 猀琀愀礀猀 琀爀甀攀 琀漀 栀椀猀 椀搀攀愀氀 漀昀 愀渀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 戀愀猀攀搀 漀昀昀 漀昀 爀攀愀猀漀渀⸀ 㰀倀㸀
We have now seen how people are ends by virtue of their reason and that each human must be treated this way and no other way. Having outlined this humanity principle, Kant shifts the focus of his essay to practically applying this idea.吀漀 搀漀 猀漀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 最漀攀猀 戀愀挀欀 琀漀 琀栀攀 昀漀甀爀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 栀攀 甀猀攀猀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 戀漀漀欀 琀漀 搀攀洀漀渀猀琀爀愀琀攀 洀漀爀愀氀 漀戀氀椀最愀琀椀漀渀⸀ 䔀愀挀栀 猀瀀攀挀椀昀椀挀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀 栀攀氀瀀猀 挀氀愀爀椀昀礀 洀愀渀 愀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 搀甀攀 琀漀 栀椀猀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀椀琀礀Ⰰ 猀漀 䬀愀渀琀 甀猀攀猀 琀栀攀猀攀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀猀 琀漀 洀愀欀攀 琀栀攀猀攀 搀椀猀琀椀渀挀琀椀漀渀猀 挀氀攀愀爀⸀ 䠀椀猀 昀椀爀猀琀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀 搀攀猀挀爀椀戀攀猀 猀甀椀挀椀搀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䬀愀渀琀 挀漀渀挀氀甀搀攀猀 猀甀椀挀椀搀攀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 昀漀氀氀漀眀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 栀攀 猀愀礀猀Ⰰ ᰀ䤠昀 椀渀 漀爀搀攀爀 琀漀 攀猀挀愀瀀攀 昀爀漀洀 戀甀爀搀攀渀猀漀洀攀 挀椀爀挀甀洀猀琀愀渀挀攀猀 栀攀 搀攀猀琀爀漀礀猀 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 栀攀 甀猀攀猀 愀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 洀攀爀攀氀礀 愀猀 愀 洀攀愀渀猀 琀漀 洀愀椀渀琀愀椀渀 愀 琀漀氀攀爀愀戀氀攀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 甀瀀 琀漀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀 漀昀 氀椀昀攀ᴀ†⠀㐀㈀㤀⤀⸀ 䘀爀漀洀 琀栀椀猀 焀甀漀琀攀Ⰰ 眀攀 猀攀攀 琀栀愀琀 䬀愀渀琀 愀搀搀爀攀猀猀攀猀 琀栀攀 椀猀猀甀攀 漀昀 渀攀挀攀猀猀愀爀礀 搀甀琀礀 琀漀 漀渀攀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 洀漀爀攀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 栀攀 搀椀猀琀椀渀最甀椀猀栀攀猀 栀漀眀 琀栀攀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀 愀瀀瀀氀椀攀猀 琀漀 漀渀攀猀攀氀昀 愀猀 挀漀洀瀀愀爀攀搀 琀漀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀⸀ 䄀 猀甀椀挀椀搀愀氀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 挀漀洀洀椀琀 猀甀椀挀椀搀攀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀渀 琀栀椀猀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 眀漀甀氀搀 渀漀琀 戀攀 琀爀攀愀琀椀渀最 栀椀猀 漀爀 栀攀爀 漀眀渀 氀椀昀攀 眀椀琀栀 爀攀猀瀀攀挀琀㬀 洀漀爀攀 猀愀氀椀攀渀琀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 猀甀椀挀椀搀愀氀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀Ⰰ 戀礀 琀爀攀愀琀椀渀最 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀 愀猀 愀 洀攀愀渀猀Ⰰ 眀漀甀氀搀 渀漀琀 戀攀 爀攀猀瀀攀挀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 琀栀愀琀 攀愀挀栀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 攀砀椀猀琀猀 愀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀渀 椀琀猀攀氀昀⸀ 一漀琀愀戀氀礀Ⰰ 眀攀 最愀椀渀 愀 最爀攀愀琀攀爀 洀攀猀猀愀最攀 眀栀椀挀栀 攀砀琀攀渀搀猀 琀漀 愀氀氀 漀昀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀猀㨀 吀栀攀 瀀爀愀挀琀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 椀猀 昀漀爀洀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 琀栀愀琀 攀愀挀栀 栀甀洀愀渀 椀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 搀甀攀 琀漀 栀椀猀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 挀漀甀氀搀 渀攀瘀攀爀 戀攀 昀漀爀洀攀搀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 甀瀀栀漀氀搀椀渀最 琀栀椀猀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀⸀㰀倀㸀
Like his first example, Kant’s demonstrates how the treatment of others is also contingent on the objective principle that each human is an end in himself due to his rationality. In this example, Kant concludes one cannot lie to another person because this person would be used as a means, and not as an end. Kant says of lying, “For he whom I want to use for my own purposes by means of such a promise cannot possibly assent to my mode of acting against him and thus share in the purpose of this action” (430). Specifically, Kant argues that because both the liar and the person lied to would never agree upon the purpose of the lie, the liar is using another person as a means of advancement. Instead, by agreeing on the humanity principle that each man has to be treated as a rational being who is an end in himself, a guide for conduct is assumed and a moral principle is thus created. Yet when one lies to another, this practical imperative of reason is destroyed and morality ceases to exist. Thus, we once again get to the root of the problem that we must not violate the objective principle, which states each man has his own end as a rational being. If we violate this objective principle, we will violate the practical imperative to treat everyone in humanity as his own end.
圀椀琀栀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 琀栀椀爀搀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀 漀昀 洀攀爀椀琀漀爀椀漀甀猀 搀甀琀礀 琀漀 漀渀攀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 栀攀 漀渀挀攀 愀最愀椀渀 挀氀愀爀椀昀椀攀猀 栀椀猀 搀攀昀椀渀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀⸀ 䤀渀 昀愀挀琀Ⰰ 栀攀 猀琀愀琀攀猀 攀砀愀挀琀氀礀 栀漀眀 洀攀渀 洀甀猀琀 爀攀猀瀀攀挀琀 漀渀攀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀⸀ 圀栀攀渀 搀攀猀挀爀椀戀椀渀最 洀攀爀椀琀漀爀椀漀甀猀 搀甀琀礀 琀漀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀Ⰰ 栀攀 猀愀礀猀Ⰰ 㰀倀㸀
it is not sufficient that the action not conflict with humanity in our person as an end in itself; it must also harmonize with it. In humanity, there are capacities for greater perfection which belong to the purpose of nature with respect to humanity in our own person, and to neglect these might perhaps be consistent with the preservation of humanity as an end in itself, but not with the furtherance of that end (430).
Specifically, Kant explains that the rational nature of man can be perfected and that man wants to be happy. There are a myriad of ways that man can cultivate his skills to make himself and all of humanity happy . So, by using the word “harmonize,” Kant wants to explain how man can cultivate all his skills towards making all of humanity happy. Perhaps most importantly, man’s rational nature can be perfected through reason. Because man’s nature is different from that of an irrational being, he can refine his ability to reason and act out of a good will. With regard to morality, this means that we can use our reason in conjunction with our good will to gain more moral worth in all our actions. Through prudence, one learns to reason better and accordingly the will learns what actually is good. Although humans could do otherwise, they would be neglecting their gift as a rational being, and they would cease to be much different from the animals.
吀栀椀猀 洀攀爀椀琀漀爀椀漀甀猀 搀甀琀礀 渀漀琀 漀渀氀礀 攀砀琀攀渀搀猀 琀漀 甀猀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 愀氀猀漀 琀漀 漀琀栀攀爀猀⸀ 䤀渀搀攀攀搀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 氀愀猀琀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀 攀砀瀀氀愀椀渀猀 栀漀眀 愀氀氀 洀攀渀 洀甀猀琀 昀甀爀琀栀攀爀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀 漀昀 漀琀栀攀爀猀Ⰰ 愀猀 栀攀 猀愀礀猀Ⰰ ᰀ䘠漀爀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀猀 漀昀 愀渀礀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀Ⰰ 眀栀漀 椀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀渀 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 洀甀猀琀 愀猀 昀愀爀 愀猀 瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀攀 戀攀 愀氀猀漀 洀礀 攀渀搀猀Ⰰ 椀昀 琀栀愀琀 挀漀渀挀攀瀀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀渀 椀琀猀攀氀昀 椀猀 琀漀 栀愀瘀攀 椀琀猀 昀甀氀氀 攀昀昀攀挀琀 漀渀 洀攀ᴀ†⠀㐀㌀ ⤀⸀ 䠀攀爀攀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 猀栀漀眀猀 琀栀愀琀 漀甀爀 攀砀琀攀爀渀愀氀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 愀氀眀愀礀猀 愀昀昀攀挀琀 甀猀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 漀甀爀 琀爀攀愀琀洀攀渀琀 漀昀 漀琀栀攀爀猀 椀猀 愀 瀀愀爀琀 漀昀 漀甀爀 洀漀爀愀氀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 漀甀爀 漀眀渀 栀愀瀀瀀椀渀攀猀猀⸀ 䤀昀 䤀 挀栀漀漀猀攀 渀漀琀 琀漀 搀漀渀愀琀攀 琀漀 挀栀愀爀椀琀礀Ⰰ 椀渀 猀漀洀攀 猀攀渀猀攀Ⰰ 䤀 愀洀 渀漀琀 愀挀琀椀渀最 戀礀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀 琀栀愀琀 最漀瘀攀爀渀猀 洀礀 愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 䤀 愀洀 瘀椀漀氀愀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 漀昀 琀爀攀愀琀椀渀最 洀礀猀攀氀昀 愀猀 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最⸀ 䈀礀 渀漀琀 栀攀氀瀀椀渀最 漀琀栀攀爀猀 ⠀愀渀搀 洀愀欀椀渀最 琀栀椀猀 愀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀⤀Ⰰ 愀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 眀椀氀氀椀渀最 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀礀 琀栀攀洀猀攀氀瘀攀猀 戀攀 栀甀爀琀Ⰰ 猀漀 琀栀椀猀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 搀攀猀琀爀漀礀椀渀最 琀栀攀 昀甀渀搀愀洀攀渀琀愀氀 爀甀氀攀 漀昀 琀爀攀愀琀椀渀最 栀椀猀 漀爀 栀攀爀猀攀氀昀 愀猀 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 眀椀琀栀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀琀猀攀氀昀⸀ 䴀漀爀攀 渀漀琀愀戀氀礀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 漀渀挀攀 洀漀爀攀 挀氀愀爀椀昀椀攀猀 琀栀攀 爀漀氀攀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 瀀氀愀礀猀 椀渀 愀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀ᤀ猠 氀椀昀攀⸀ 䤀琀 椀猀 渀漀琀 最漀漀搀 攀渀漀甀最栀 琀漀 樀甀猀琀 栀愀瘀攀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀渀搀 渀漀琀 挀漀渀猀椀猀琀攀渀琀氀礀 甀猀攀 椀琀 椀渀 愀 洀愀渀渀攀爀 挀漀渀搀甀挀椀瘀攀 琀漀 漀渀攀ᤀ猠 漀眀渀 瀀攀爀昀攀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 漀爀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀ᤀ猠⸀ 䤀渀猀琀攀愀搀Ⰰ 漀渀攀 洀甀猀琀 愀椀搀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 挀栀愀爀椀琀愀戀氀攀 愀挀琀猀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 椀琀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 挀漀渀琀爀愀搀椀挀琀漀爀礀 琀漀 眀椀猀栀 愀渀礀琀栀椀渀最 漀琀栀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 栀愀瀀瀀椀渀攀猀猀 漀爀 最漀漀搀 栀攀愀氀琀栀 漀渀 漀渀攀猀攀氀昀⸀ 㰀倀㸀
Kant’s last example of meritorious duty to others leads him to declare his third principle of the categorical imperative that says “in the Idea of the will of every rational being as a will giving universal law” (431). His goal in this paragraph is to finally explain how the categorical imperative can harmonize with universal practical reason. Kant explains how the third principle comes from the combination of the objective and subjective end of all legislation, for he says of the humanity principle,
吀栀椀猀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 漀昀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 椀渀 最攀渀攀爀愀氀 漀昀 攀瘀攀爀礀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 挀爀攀愀琀甀爀攀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀渀 椀琀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 椀猀 琀栀攀 猀甀瀀爀攀洀攀 氀椀洀椀琀椀渀最 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 漀渀 琀栀攀 昀爀攀攀搀漀洀 漀昀 愀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 攀愀挀栀 洀愀渀⸀ 䤀琀 椀猀 渀漀琀 戀漀爀爀漀眀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀Ⰰ 昀椀爀猀琀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 漀昀 椀琀猀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀椀琀礀Ⰰ 猀椀渀挀攀 椀琀 愀瀀瀀氀椀攀猀 琀漀 愀氀氀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最猀 最攀渀攀爀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 猀甀昀昀椀挀攀 琀漀 搀攀琀攀爀洀椀渀攀 愀渀礀琀栀椀渀最 愀戀漀甀琀 琀栀攀洀㬀 愀渀搀 猀攀挀漀渀搀氀礀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 椀渀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀 椀猀 渀漀琀 琀栀漀甀最栀琀 漀昀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 愀猀 琀栀攀 瀀甀爀瀀漀猀攀 漀昀 洀攀渀☀†刀愀琀栀攀爀 椀琀 椀猀 琀栀漀甀最栀琀 漀昀 愀猀 琀栀攀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀渀搀 眀栀椀挀栀 漀甀最栀琀 琀漀 挀漀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀 琀栀攀 猀甀瀀爀攀洀攀 氀椀洀椀琀椀渀最 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 愀氀氀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀渀搀猀 眀栀愀琀攀瘀攀爀 琀栀攀礀 洀愀礀 戀攀 ⠀㐀㌀⤀⸀㰀倀㸀
䈀礀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀Ⰰ 愀渀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 氀愀眀 挀愀渀 戀攀 挀爀攀愀琀攀搀 椀昀 椀琀 椀猀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀氀礀 愀瀀瀀氀椀挀愀戀氀攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 愀氀氀 氀攀最椀猀氀愀琀椀漀渀 愀氀猀漀 栀愀猀 愀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀渀搀 琀漀 椀琀⸀ 吀漀 爀攀挀琀椀昀礀 琀栀椀猀 瀀爀漀戀氀攀洀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 甀猀攀猀 栀椀猀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀⸀ 䠀攀 愀爀最甀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 挀漀洀攀猀 昀爀漀洀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 椀琀 愀瀀瀀氀椀攀猀 琀漀 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀 愀渀搀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 甀渀搀攀爀猀琀漀漀搀 戀礀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀⸀ 䄀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 戀礀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀 眀攀 搀漀 渀漀琀 戀攀氀椀攀瘀攀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 䠀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀 倀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 椀猀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 琀栀愀琀 椀琀 椀猀 琀栀攀 ᰀ猠甀瀀爀攀洀攀 氀椀洀椀琀椀渀最 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 漀渀 琀栀攀 昀爀攀攀搀漀洀 漀昀 愀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 攀愀挀栀 洀愀渀Ⰰᴀ†猀漀 琀栀攀 椀搀攀愀 琀栀愀琀 攀瘀攀爀礀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 猀栀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 琀爀攀愀琀攀搀 愀猀 愀渀 攀渀搀 椀猀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀⸀ 䠀漀眀攀瘀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 椀猀 愀渀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀渀搀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 挀漀洀攀猀 昀爀漀洀 爀攀愀猀漀渀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 椀琀 挀愀渀 猀攀爀瘀攀 愀猀 琀栀攀 戀愀猀椀猀 昀漀爀 猀漀洀攀琀栀椀渀最 琀栀愀琀 戀椀渀搀猀 愀氀氀 洀攀渀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀氀礀⸀ ⠀䔀猀猀攀渀琀椀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 愀 氀椀洀椀琀椀渀最 昀漀爀挀攀 琀漀 漀渀攀ᤀ猠 挀漀搀攀 漀昀 挀漀渀搀甀挀琀 挀愀渀 戀攀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀⤀⸀ 吀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀Ⰰ 眀攀 挀愀渀 挀爀攀愀琀攀 愀 琀栀椀爀搀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 愀渀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 洀漀琀椀瘀攀 愀渀搀 漀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 攀渀搀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 眀愀礀Ⰰ 椀琀 挀愀渀 挀漀洀攀 昀爀漀洀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 愀渀搀 猀攀爀瘀攀 愀猀 愀 氀愀眀 愀瀀瀀氀椀挀愀戀氀攀 琀漀 愀氀氀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 䬀愀渀琀 搀漀攀猀 渀漀琀 眀愀渀琀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀 琀漀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 愀 氀愀眀 愀瀀瀀氀椀挀愀戀氀攀 琀漀 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀⸀㰀倀㸀
Now, for an imperative to be categorical it must not contain mixed interest; more saliently, it must be objective and binding to all. By creating this third principle, Kant establishes how the categorical imperative, as opposed to the hypothetical imperative, is pure and without mixed interests. As Kant says, “The will is not only subject to the law but subject in such a way that is must be conceived also as itself prescribing the law, of which reason can hold itself to be the author; it is on this ground alone that the will is regarded as subject to the law” (431). With the third principle, Kant explains that a law cannot be created out of one’s own interests, but must consider the interest of others because each person has a will capable of legislating a law. Each person has this ability because of reason, and reason, as Kant explains, is the only objective source for compelling someone to obey a law. With reason, the practical principle and the categorical imperative can be unconditional and binding for every man. So, reason is the fundamental source of morality’s power and without it, every action would have interest as its foundation.
ऀ䤀渀 挀漀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀Ⰰ 眀攀 洀甀猀琀 爀攀椀琀攀爀愀琀攀 眀栀愀琀 䬀愀渀琀ᤀ猠 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 椀猀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 瀀愀瀀攀爀⸀ 䤀渀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀椀渀最 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 栀攀 愀爀最甀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀愀琀 爀攀愀猀漀渀 椀猀 琀栀攀 昀漀甀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀 昀漀爀 琀甀爀渀椀渀最 愀 洀愀砀椀洀 椀渀琀漀 愀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀⸀ 䤀渀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀椀渀最 琀栀攀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀愀琀攀最漀爀椀挀愀氀 椀洀瀀攀爀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 猀栀漀眀猀 琀栀愀琀 洀愀渀 搀椀猀琀椀渀挀琀椀瘀攀 瘀愀氀甀攀 愀猀 愀 爀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 戀攀椀渀最 眀椀琀栀 愀 眀椀氀氀 攀渀琀椀琀氀攀猀 栀椀洀 琀漀 爀攀猀瀀攀挀琀⸀ 䤀渀 挀爀攀愀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 琀栀椀爀搀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 䬀愀渀琀 挀漀愀氀攀猀挀攀猀 琀栀攀 琀眀漀 瀀爀攀瘀椀漀甀猀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀琀椀漀渀猀 琀漀 猀栀漀眀 琀栀愀琀 攀瘀攀爀礀 栀甀洀愀渀 栀愀猀 琀栀攀 愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 琀漀 眀椀氀氀 愀 洀愀砀椀洀 椀渀琀漀 愀 甀渀椀瘀攀爀猀愀氀 氀愀眀 椀昀 琀栀攀 栀甀洀愀渀椀琀礀 瀀爀椀渀挀椀瀀氀攀 椀猀 甀猀攀搀 愀猀 愀 最甀椀搀攀氀椀渀攀⸀ 䄀猀琀漀甀渀搀椀渀最氀礀Ⰰ 栀攀 搀漀攀猀 琀栀椀猀 愀氀氀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 爀攀氀礀椀渀最 漀渀 愀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 攀洀瀀椀爀椀挀愀氀 愀爀最甀洀攀渀琀 琀漀 猀甀瀀瀀漀爀琀 栀椀猀 挀氀愀椀洀猀⸀㰀倀㸀
Beyond Kant’s main points, there may be another thought pertinent to his entire argument. As Kant argues, reason in accordance with a man’s will gives him a distinctive value, which cannot be found in every organism. Thus, it can serve as the factor that limits man’s freedom, but also compels him to greater things. Indeed, although reason may be somewhat of a hindrance on our freedom, it allows us to gain a sense of moral worth unparalleled by anything else. It is this sense of moral worth that makes morality so important in our lives and why Kant’s categorical imperative provides an appealing approach to the subject. Although he may not have proven the metaphysics of morals, his attempt sheds more light onto an already difficult subject.
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Want to reach me? E-mail me at nickhil@nickhil.com㰀倀㸀
㰀⼀昀漀渀琀㸀